History Of Computer Architecture First Generation Information Technology Essay

History Of Computer Architecture First Generation Information Technology Essay In 1945 Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer it was the first general purpose computer designed by Mauchly Echert, built by United States army to calculate  artillery  firing tables for ballistic shells during World War II. The machine was developed using vacuum tubes and relays, and it was programmed to work manually by setting switches. UNIVersal  Automatic  Computer  I (UNIVAC) 1950: It was the first commercial computer developed. John Von Neumann architecture: Goldstine and Von Neumann took the idea of ENIAC and developed concept of storing a program in the memory. Known as the Von Neumann architecture and has been the basis for virtually every machine designed since then. Features: Electron emit devices Data and programs are stored in a single read-write memory Memory contents are addressable by location, regardless of the content itself Machine language/Assemble language Sequential execution Second Generation (1950-1964) Transistors William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain invent the transistor that reduce size of computers and improve reliability. First operating Systems: handled one program at a time On-off switches controlled by electricity High level languages Floating point arithmetic Third Generation (1964-1974) Integrated Circuits (IC) Microprocessor chips combines thousands of transistors, entire circuit on one computer ship Semiconductor memory Multiple computer models with different performance characteristics Smaller computers that did not need a specialized room Fourth Generation (1974-present) Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI)/Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) Combines millions of transistors Single-chip processor and the single-board computer emerged Creation of the Personal Computer (PC) Wide spread use of data communications Artificial intelligence: Functions logic predicates Object-Oriented programming: Objects operations on objects Massively parallel machine 32 bit architecture In computing 32 bit architecture refers to how a computer is build. In a 32 bit architecture computer the integer values can be stored in 32bits is 0 through 4,294,967,295 or à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647 using twos complement encoding. Bus architecture In  computer architecture a  bus  refers to structure handling data transmission between components inside a  computer system, or computer network which transmit binary numbers, one bit per wire. Modern computer buses can use both parallel and bit-serial connections, and can be wired in either a electrical parallel or  daisy chain  topology, or connected by switched hubs, as in the case of  USB. A microprocessor communicates with memory and other devices (input and output) using three busses: Address Bus Data Bus Control Bus. Address Bus   The address bus  is a  computer bus, which consist series of lines connecting two or more devices that is used to specify a  physical address. When R3900  processor   needs to read or write to a memory location, it specifies that memory location on the address bus sent through the  data bus. The width of the address bus determines the amount of memory a system can address. In toshiba R3900 Processor Core address bus can address 232  (4,294,967,296) memory locations which is 32bit. If each memory address holds one byte, the addressable memory space is 4 GB. Address bus is unidirectional, numbers only sent from microprocessor to memory, not other way. Data Bus A data bus is a  computer  subsystem that allows for the transferring of data from one component to another on a  motherboard  or system board. Data bus used to transmit data, information, results of arithmetic, etc, between memory and the microprocessor This can include transferring data to and from the memory, or from the  central processing unit  (CPU) to other components, it is bi-directional. The R3900 data bus is designed to handle so many bits of data at a time. The amount of data a data bus can handle is called bandwidth. The toshiba 32 bits R3900  processor  can transfer data through a data bus every second. At the same time they are making data buses to handle more bits, they are also making devices that can handle those higher bitrates Control Bus A  control bus  is (part of) a  computer bus, used by  CPUs  for communicating with other devices within the computer. The control bus will tell the memory that we are either reading from a location, specified on the address bus, or writing to a location specified. Various other signals to control and coordinate the operation of the system. The R3900 32 bit buss, which allow larger number of instructions, more memory location, and faster arithmetic. Microcontrollers organized along same lines, except: because microcontrollers have memory etc inside the chip, the busses may all be internal. In the microprocessor the three busses are external to the chip (except for the internal data bus). In external busses, the chip connects to the busses via buffers, which are simply an electronic connection between external bus and the internal data bus. Memory management unit  (MMU) Memory management unit  (MMU) is also called as  paged memory management unit  (PMMU), is a  computer hardware component responsible for handling accesses to  memory  requested by the  CPU. Its functions include translation of  virtual addresses  to  physical addresses  (i.e.,  virtual memory  management),  memory protection,  cache  control,  bus  arbitration, and, in simpler computer architectures, bank switching. The functions performed by the memory management unit can typically be divided into three areas: hardware memory management operating system  memory management application memory management The Toshiba R3900 Processor Core Operating Modes The R3900 Processor Core has two operating modes user mode kernel mode It operates in the user mode normally, when exception is detected it changes to kernel mode. In kernel mode, it continues until an RFE (Restore from Exception) instruction is executed. The existing virtual address space varies with the mode. User mode User mode exist only one of the two 2 Gbyte virtual address spaces (kuseg). The most considerable bit of each kuseg address is 0. The range virtual address kuseg is of 0x0000 0000 to 0x7FFF FFFF. Attempting to access an address when the MSB is 1 while in user mode returns an Address Error exception. Kernel mode Kernel mode makes available a second 2 Gbyte virtual address space (kseg), in addition to the kuseg accessible in user mode. The range virtual address kuseg is of 0x8000 0000 to 0xFFFF FFFF. Direct Segment Mapping The Toshiba R3900 Processor Core has a direct segment mapping MMU. User mode One 2 Gbyte virtual address space (kuseg) is available in user mode. In this mode, the most important bit of each kuseg address is 0. The virtual address range of kuseg is 0x0000 0000 to 0x7FFF FFFF. Attempting to access an address outside of this range, that is, with the MSB is 1, while in user mode will raise an Address Error exception. Virtual addresses 0x0000 0000 to 0x7FFF. FFFF are translated to physical addresses 0x4000 0000 to 0xBFFF FFFF, individually. The upper 16-Mbyte area of kuseg (0x7F00 0000 to 0x7FFF FFFF) is reserved for on-chip resources and is not cacheable. Kernel mode The kernel mode address space is ta as four virtual address segments. One of these, kuseg, is the same as the one in user mode; the other remaining three are kernel segments kseg0, kseg1 and kseg2. Pipeline Architecture Computer  pipeline  is a set of data processing parts connected in series, so that the output of one element is the input of the next one. The elements of a pipeline are often executed in parallel or in time-sliced fashion; in that case, some amount of  buffer storage  is often inserted between elements. Each cycle different instruction is executed in different stages For example, 5-stage pipeline (Fetch-Decode-Read-Execute-Write), The Toshiba R3900 Processor Core executes instructions in five pipeline stages (F: instruction fetch; D: decode; E: execute; M: memory access; W: register write-back). The five stages have the following roles. F : An instruction is fetched from the instruction cache. D : The instruction is decoded. Contents of the general-purpose registers are read.. E : Arithmetic, logical and shift operations are performed. The execution of multiple/divide instructions is begun. M: The data cache is accessed in the case of load and store instructions. W: The result is written to a general register. Each of the above pipeline stage is executed in one clock cycle. When the pipeline is fully used, the five instructions are executed at the same time, which will be resulting in an average instruction execution rate of one instruction per cycle. Delay Slot The R3900 Processor Core instructions are executed with a delay of one instruction cycle. Delay slot is the cycle in which an instruction is delayed. A delay occurs with load instructions and branch/jump instructions. Delayed load Delayed branching Non blocking Load Function In the R3900 processor the non blocking load function stops the pipeline from stalling when a cache miss happens and a refill cycle is needed to refill the data cache. Instructions after the load instruction that do not use registers involved by the load will continue to be executed. Multiply and Multiply/Add Instructions(MULT, MULTU, MADD, MADDU) The R3900 Processor Core is able to execute multiply and multiply/add instructions continuously, and able to use the results in the HI/LO registers in immediately following instructions, without pipeline stall. The processor requires only one clock cycle to use the outcome of a general-purpose register. Divide Instruction (DIV, DIVU) The Processor Core performs division instructions in the division unit independently of the pipeline. Division starts from the pipeline E stage and takes 35 cycles. Streaming The R3900 Processor Core can resume execution immediately after arrival of necessary data or instruction in cache even though cache refill operation is not completed during a cache refill operation. This is referred to as streaming.

My Philosophy on Teaching :: Education Teachers Learning Classroom Essays

My Philosophy on Teaching It became clear to me that I wanted to become an Elementary teacher when I was given the opportunity to attend Hinton Elementary School as a student volunteer to read to the first grade class during my junior year of High School. It was on this day that I realized that teaching is what I truly want to do with my life. Given the opportunity to read to the first graders and being able to get to know each of them filled a special place in my heart. After reading a few of my favorite childhood books to the first graders, I gave them the opportunity to read and sound out some of their favorite books to me. I am very grateful that I was given such an opportunity, such an eye opening experience – which helped me to realize that this is what I want to do with my life – Teach. Every teacher has an opinion as to what the best teaching method is. While each method has many advantages and disadvantages, I have chosen direct instruction as my main teaching method. To me, it seems to be more direct and easier to understand for elementary students. Direct teaching is also known as systematic, active, or explicit teaching. In this set, the teacher is a strong leader that develops, structures and teaches by having an academic focus point. With the emphasis on the importance of a structural lesson, the presentation of new information is followed be student practice and teacher feedback. A teacher must have a lot of patience with the younger children. It is often the case that students will fall behind because they have not yet mastered the basic skills of the given subject. With the direct teaching process, the children are able to receive several opportunities to enhance their learning and make them understand subjects more clearly. By refreshi ng their memories, using repetition, giving homework, and asking questions, a teacher can better understand the children and allow them to learn in a proper manner. The younger children can learn, remember and understand instead of just memorizing the information to get through a test and forgetting it after the test is over.

Bulgaria country

The principle of Bulgarian foreign strategy is to carry on defining the international priorities and tactical orientation of their country, being accountable to its citizens and to their associates and partners. Bulgaria aims at clearness and predictability in resolution making and completion of foreign policy and applies an unbiased approach in foreign policy behavior and initiatives. (Seymore B, 1993, p. 70) Bulgaria is a staunch backer of the universal self-governing and humanitarian values and ensues from their defense and promotion as a structure for its foreign policy.Bulgaria’s EU association has created new opportunities for enhancing the country’s task and reputation in the international neighborhood. (Blankson A, 2007, p. 92) How Bulgaria uses its ‘Instruments of foreign policy’ to influence the international community Bulgaria is building great efforts to endorse peace, security and constancy especially on a local scale, and globally as well, gui ded by the sympathetic of the indivisibility of intercontinental security and by its loyalty to universal democratic and human principles. (Stone W, 2002, p. 87)Bulgaria as a North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) associate, continues its hard work towards adequate and effective participation in the policy and decision making procedure of NATO and for the triumphant integration of the nationwide interests. (Stone W, 2002, p. 88) Bulgaria pursues vigorous foreign policy that takes full explanation of the challenges of globalizing contemporary world. The country continues to triumph recognition as a dependable partner in fighting terrorism and other intimidation to international safety. (Brzezinski W, 2002, p. 98)Moreover, Bulgaria focuses on the expansion of the existing intercontinental forms of efficient counteraction and prevention of the propagation of weapons of mass obliteration and of ensuring effective sell abroad control. (Brzezinski Z, 1997, p. 100) Amongst the main prio rities of Bulgarian foreign policy are the fortification of human rights and elementary freedoms and the adherence of the generally established international standards. Bulgaria supports the improvement of the accessible system of intercontinental mechanisms and bodies for human rights monitoring and fortification in order to improve their effectiveness.(Stone W, 2002, p. 89) Bulgaria has been an active partaker in military operations outside its boundaries. Currently, it has corporation sized units running with alliance forces in Afghanistan and Iraq and has maintained little contingents of troops urbanized with international military in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo. It deployed a frigate to Lebanon with UNIFIL in late 2006 and has more than a few military observers helping in support of United Nations missions in Ethiopia, Liberia, and Kosovo. (Cronin K, 2004, p. 61) Bulgaria’s association with its neighbors has in general been good.Bulgaria has verified to be a produc tive force in the county and has played a significant role in promoting local security amongst the international community. (Stone W, 2002, p. 89) According to the World Bank, in 2006 Bulgaria engrossed the uppermost levels of foreign direct investment as a share of GDP among the Eastern European countries. However, a growing current account shortfall estimated to have reached 20% of GDP and extreme reliance on foreign assets inflow rendered the financial system vulnerable to exterior shock.Nevertheless, to attract supplementary foreign investment, the Bulgarian administration lowered company tax rates to 10% which was the lowest fee in Europe. A flat duty rate of 10% for individual income would further decrease domestic effort costs and help decrease the share of the gray financial system. As a result, the assembly passed fiscal devolution of municipalities giving way authority over compilation and administration of some levies, therefore further enhancing local monetary stability among the intercontinental community.(Brzezinski A, 1997, p. 99) Bulgaria is making stable efforts to toughen its national security for which the chief military and political assurance stems from the county’s association in NATO. Bulgaria is concerned both in preserving NATO’s principle role associated with the communal defense of its Member States, and in the expansion of the Alliance’s capabilities for adequate comeback to the new intimidation and challenges. (Seymore B, 1993, p. 75) HOW THREE INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES APPLY TO BULGARIAThe closing stage of the Cold War era of bipolarity has raised numerous important questions regarding the function of the United States in the Balkans. The United States and its NATO associates have made diverse commitments regarding the security challenges that have arisen in that area since the early 1990’s. (Blankson A, 2007, p. 93) The United States affirmed its support for political and economic reorganization in Bulg aria and committed its awareness and resources to endorse Sofia’s engagement in Western safety institutions.(Seymore B, 1993, p. 80) The three international strategies include drug trafficking, struggle against crime, corruption and terrorism. Bulgaria recognizes the solemn threat of drug trafficking within and throughout the country. Domestic and international structured crime groups, numerous of which involved in prohibited trade in other possessions and in financial crimes, frequently alter the tendencies and models for use of the region of the country for storage space and shipment of prohibited drugs.The arrangement and methods used by these groups are under steady surveillance by law enforcement agencies with a scrutiny to preventing allotment of drugs and their effect on political, social, economic and culture spheres of our life. (Stone W, 2002, p. 91) Bulgaria is geologically well placed to play a momentous role in enhancing the international anti-drug attempt. Over the current years Bulgaria has a foremost position amongst European countries in terms of heroin seizures and the intercontinental community’s aim is to carry on to contribute considerably to curbing and counteracting illegal drug trafficking.(Blankson A, 2007, p. 98) Having in mind the long-time obligation to international labors against illegal drug trafficking and to the struggle against international violence, the Republic of Bulgaria is resolutely resolved to make stronger its actions for reducing those illegal activities on the region of the country and internationally. (Cronin K, 2004, p. 66) U. S FOREIGN POLICY OBJECTIVES TO BULGARIA In May 2005, the United States and the Republic of Bulgaria signed a Defense Cooperation Agreement which gives the United States armed right of entry to and shared use of numerous Bulgarian military amenities.The United States military intends to use this right of entry to facilitate joint preparation with the Bulgarian and Romanian milit aries. (Blankson A, 2007, p. 102) Moreover, in February 2007, Bulgaria and the Unites States signed an agreement on evasion of double taxation that is anticipated to further endorse U. S. investment in Bulgaria. (Seymore B, 1993, p. 83) The most important U. S. interest in Bulgaria is to uphold the region’s constancy and security so that conflicts do not have an effect on U. S. welfare in Western Europe and the Middle East. (Cronin K, 2004, p. 71) HOW FOREIGN POLICY OF BULGARIA AFFECTS THE UNITED STATESBulgaria foreign policy precedence number one is to make sure full membership of their state in the European Union from 1 January 2007. The labors of all authorities at all administration levels will be mobilized to make certain the completion of the commitments undertaken in the negotiation procedure, and the triumphant ratification by EU Member States of the Accession Treaty, signed on 25 April 2005 and ratified by the Bulgaria National Assembly on 11 May 2005. (Stone W, 2002 , p. 92) Bulgaria pursues a dynamic foreign policy that takes full explanation of the challenges of a globalizing modern globe.The country continues to triumph recognition as a dependable partner in skirmishing terrorism and other threats to intercontinental security. An active strategy aimed at establishing working mechanisms for intercontinental cooperation and harmonization of counterterrorism labors will be implemented to support the U. S. (Brzezinski Z, 1997, p. 98) Moreover, the expansion of the obtainable international forms of effectual counteraction and avoidance of the propagation of weapons of mass obliteration and of ensuring effectual export control also assists United States in dealing with terrorism.Bulgaria upholds its associations of strategic joint venture with the U. S. in the context of transatlantic collaboration and will aspire to further make stronger the monetary relations. (Cronin K, 2004, p. 78) Bulgaria’s companionship with the U. S. has to be put i n the context of how it has affected the balance of power and nationwide interests amongst other local states. A close Washington-Sofia relationship comes at a moment when there is a main change going on in the Russian Federation. Currently oil and gas revenues united with Vladimir Putin’s tough management, have managed to put Russia back in order.Putin is beginning to look to his foreign policy and his armed forces in order to project Russian welfare abroad and reinstate Russia’s customary spheres of influence. (Brzezinski Z, 1997, p. 105) The foreign policy of Bulgaria has led to coalition U. S. -Bulgarian alliance. For instance; throughout the Cold War, Bulgaria was extensively seen as a staunch Moscow satellite under the management of Todor Zhivkov. Fifteen years later following the fall of the Soviet Union, it is on its way to joining the West through N. A. T. O. and European Union membership.(Seymore B, 1993, p. 86) Bulgarian foreign policy is the fortification o f human rights and elementary freedoms and the observation of the generally accepted intercontinental standards in this field. The country supports the view that individual rights are worldwide, interdependent, indivisible and interconnected. In this context, Bulgaria supports as an issue of principle the improvement of the existing scheme of international mechanisms and bodies for individual rights monitoring and fortification in order to improve their efficiency towards United States.(Stone W, 2002, p. 94) Conclusion Bulgarian foreign policy is based on the worldwide approach and indivisibility of safety both in general and within NATO and the EU, and it’s intended at attaining equal amount of security for all associate States. The standard of solidarity on the other hand is articulated in the country’s involvement within its potential in the international assistance for growth as well as all along the lines of promoting democracy. REFERENCE LIST Blankson. A (2007) N egotiating Democracy: Media Transformations in emerging,Sunny Press. ISBN: 0791472337. Brzezinski. Z (1997) Russia and the Common Wealth of Independent States, M. E. Sharpe Publishers. ISBN: 1563246376. Cronin. K (2004) Attacking Terrorism: Elements of a Grand Strategy, Georgetown University Press. ISBN: 0878403477. Seymore. B (1993) International Affairs Directory of Organizations, ABC-CLIO Publishers. ISBN: 0874366860. Stone. W (2002) Lending Credibility: The International Monetary Fund, Princeton University Press. ISBN: 0691095299.

An Examination Of How Music Mirrors Societal Issues

An Examination of How Music Mirrors Societal Issues Perspectives of Institutionalized Racism Although the United States government is currently engaged in stopping foreign civil rights atrocities, it turns a blind eye to violence acted out against African Americans within its borders (PR N., 2014, para. 4). In South Carolina, the â€Å"rebel flag hang[s] from the state house walls† (Bryan, 1994, line 2), serving as a constant reminder of the institutionalized racism that reflects U.S. social tensions today. Another discriminatory racial injustice that occurred during the 1990s was the Anti-Drug Act of 1986. Possession of 5 grams of crack (90% of crack defendants were African American) and 500 grams of powder cocaine (more popular with†¦show more content†¦4). Not only is racial tension portrayed through brutality and violence, but it is also apparent in various aspects of public education such as unfair character labeling, racial stereotypes, harsh school punishments, and discrimination from teachers. These inequal ities present in what is supposed to be a â€Å"color blind† society create the notion that â€Å"America does not love [all] children† (Manzama, 2015, p. 11) and engender distrust in the education system. Moreover, impoverished minorities feel a sense of resentment as a result of discrimination based on economic racism and injustice. These minorities tend to rebel when they can no longer bear the weight of their anger and they believe the sentiment favours change (Chavis, 2015, p. 4). Thus we discover that throughout the history of the United States, racism has played a factor, ingraining its malicious effects into the moral fiber of American Society. Historical Perspectives Several aspects of racial prejudice today, demonstrated in both police brutality and unjust treatment of minorities, evidence atrocities that can be linked to a national history of violence and resentment towards one another. To take racism back to when freedom seemed achievable is to travel back to the Civil Rights Act of 1960s which sparked national controversy not exclusively in the South. The modern interpretation of this backlash is most accurately portrayed in the movie Selma, in which Martin